Pre-Roman Britain (Before 43 AD)

1. Stone Age – Hunter-Gatherers

1. The first inhabitants of Britain were hunter-gatherers.
2. Britain was connected to Europe via a land bridge, allowing migration.
3. For survival, they hunted animals like deer and horses when coming in and out of Britain.
4. Around 10,000 years ago, the Channel formed, permanently separating Britain from the continent.

2. Stone Age – First Farmers

1. Farming began around 6,000 years ago, likely brought by migrants from South-East Europe.
2. Early settlers built houses, tombs, and monuments.
3. Stonehenge (Wiltshire) was likely a gathering place for seasonal ceremonies.
4. Skara Brae (Orkney, Scotland) is the best-preserved prehistoric village in Northern Europe, providing insight into late Stone Age life.

3. Bronze Age (Around 4,000 years ago)

1. Marked by the development of bronze-making skills.
2. People lived in roundhouses and buried their dead in round barrows.
3. Skilled metalworkers created bronze and gold tools, ornaments, and weapons.

4. Iron Age

1. Introduction of iron tools and weapons.
2. Continued roundhouse living in larger settlements, sometimes defended sites called hill forts.
3. Maiden Castle (Dorset) is a notable Iron Age hill fort still visible today.
4. Society included farmers, craft workers, and warriors.
5. People spoke Celtic languages, related to modern Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish.
6. First British coins were minted, some inscribed with names of Iron Age kings.
7. Iron Age marks the beginning of British history.

5. Interactions & Invasions

1. Britain was influenced by migrations from continental Europe.
2. Belgae (from modern-day France & Belgium) migrated, shaping culture.
3. Trade networks linked Britain with Europe, exchanging goods and ideas.

6. Other Invasions & Conflicts

1. Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 & 54 BC, but conquest was incomplete.
2. Britain saw conflicts between local tribes and new arrivals like the Belgae, Atrebates, and Catuvellauni.

7. Cultural & Religious Practices

1. Celtic society had a strong oral tradition (storytelling & bardic poetry).
2. Worship focused on natural elements (rivers, forests, etc.).
3. Druids were key religious figures, leading rituals and acting as mediators.

Roman Conquest of Britain (43–410 AD)

1. Julius Caesar’s Expeditions (55–54 BC)

1. 55 BC & 54 BC: Julius Caesar led two Roman invasions of Britain. While he secured alliances with some tribes, no permanent Roman occupation was established.
2. Britain remained outside the Roman Empire for almost 100 years after these expeditions.

2. Roman Invasion Under Emperor Claudius (43 AD)

1. 43 AD: Emperor Claudius launched a successful invasion of Britain, marking the start of Roman rule.
2. Roman legions, led by Aulus Plautius, landed in Kent and faced resistance from native tribes.
3. The Romans rapidly advanced, capturing key areas and consolidating control over southern Britain.

3. Establishment of Roman Rule

1. Romans established major cities, including Londinium (London), which became an important trade and administrative center.
2. Roman law, governance, and infrastructure transformed British society.
3. A network of Roman roads, forts, and towns connected different regions, facilitating trade and military movements.

4. Resistance and Rebellion

1. Not all Britons accepted Roman rule, leading to revolts against the occupation.
2. 60–61 AD: Queen Boudicca, leader of the Iceni tribe, led a major rebellion, destroying Roman settlements, including Londinium, before being defeated.

5. Romanization of Britain

1. The Romans introduced Latin as the administrative language, influencing the future development of English.
2. Roman customs, architecture, and technology merged with local traditions.
3. British resources, such as metals and slaves, were exported across the Roman Empire.

6. Hadrian’s Wall (122 AD)

1. 122 AD: Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of Hadrian’s Wall to protect the Roman Empire in Britain from the Picts(Pictish tribes), who lived in what is now modern-day Scotland.
2. Hadrian’s Wall included forts like Housesteads and Vindolanda, parts of which remain today as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

7. Cultural and Religious Influence

1. Romans introduced new plants, animals, and farming techniques, impacting local agriculture.
2. 3rd & 4th centuries AD: The first Christian communities appeared in Britain, marking the spread of Christianity.

8. Roman Withdrawal (410 AD)

1. 410 AD: The Roman Empire faced increasing external pressures, leading to the withdrawal of Roman legions from Britain.
2. Roman control ended, leaving behind lasting influences on British law, language, and infrastructure.

End of Roman Rule and Anglo-Saxon Migration (410–7th century)

1. End of Roman Rule (410 AD)

1. Early 5th century: The Roman Empire faced internal and external pressures, leading to the gradual withdrawal of Roman forces from Britain.
2. 410 AD: Emperor Honorius officially withdrew Roman troops from Britain, leaving the island vulnerable to invasions by Germanic tribes and Celtic peoples.

2. Legacy of Roman Britain

1. Roman influence persisted in Britain despite the end of direct Roman rule.
2. Key Roman infrastructure, such as roads, forts, and urban centers, continued to be used and adapted by succeeding cultures.
3. The Roman occupation left a lasting imprint on British society, influencing language, architecture, and governance systems.

3. Anglo-Saxon Migration and Settlement (5th–6th centuries)

1. Following the Roman withdrawal, waves of Germanic peoples, known as the Anglo-Saxons, began migrating to Britain from regions such as Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands.
2. The Anglo-Saxons gradually settled in various parts of Britain, establishing kingdoms and territories such as Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia.
3. The migration and settlement of the Anglo-Saxons took place over several centuries, significantly transforming Britain’s political and social landscape.

4. Conflict and Integration

1. The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons led to conflicts with the native Britons, who resisted the newcomers' expansion.
2. Battle of Badon Hill (circa 500 AD): Believed to have been fought between the Britons and Anglo-Saxons, with King Arthur possibly leading the Britons against the invaders.
3. Over time, cultural integration and intermarriage between the Anglo-Saxons and native Britons led to the emergence of a new Anglo-Saxon society, blending Germanic and Celtic cultural elements.

5. Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England

1. Late 6th century: The conversion of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to Christianity began with the mission of Augustine of Canterbury, sent by Pope Gregory the Great.
2. 597 AD: Augustine’s mission landed in Kent, marking the beginning of the gradual spread of Christianity throughout Anglo-Saxon England.
3. The establishment of monasteries and churches became centers of learning and religious authority, contributing significantly to the cultural and spiritual transformation of Anglo-Saxon society.

6. Anglo-Saxon Culture and Society

1. Anglo-Saxon society was organized into hierarchical kingdoms, each ruled by a king and nobles, with a warrior elite known as thanes serving as the king’s retainers.
2. Literature, including epic poems like "Beowulf", flourished during this period, providing insights into Anglo-Saxon values, beliefs, and heroic ideals.
3. Artifacts, such as the Sutton Hoo burial ship and the Lindisfarne Gospels, showcase the artistic and craftsmanship skills of the Anglo-Saxons, reflecting their rich cultural heritage.

Viking Invasions (8th-11th century)

1. 789 AD: The Vikings from Denmark and Norway first raided coastal towns in Britain, initially targeting goods and slaves.
2. Over time, Vikings began to settle in Eastern England and Scotland, forming their own communities.
3. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms unified under King Alfred the Great to defend against Viking invasions.
4. Alfred the Great successfully defeated the Vikings and secured control of Wessex.
5. The Battle of Edington (878 AD): A key victory for Alfred the Great.
6. Viking settlers formed the Danelaw, with significant Viking influence in the east and north of England (places like Grimsby and Scunthorpe have Viking-derived names).
7. The Viking settlers integrated with local communities and many converted to Christianity.
8. Cnut (Canute): A Danish king who ruled England for a period, showing the Viking impact on English rule.
9. Scotland: The threat of Viking invasions led to unification under Kenneth MacAlpin, who established the term Scotland as a description of the unified kingdom.

Norman Conquest and Feudalism (1066-13th century)

1. The Norman Conquest (1066):

1. 1066 AD: William, Duke of Normandy (from northern France) invaded England and defeated Harold, the Saxon king, at the Battle of Hastings.
2. Harold was killed in the battle.
3. William became the king of England and is known as William the Conqueror.

2. Bayeux Tapestry:

1. The Battle of Hastings is commemorated in the Bayeux Tapestry, a large piece of embroidered linen (nearly 70 meters or 230 feet long) depicting the events of the battle.
2. The tapestry is on display in France.

3. Norman Conquest Impact:

1. The Norman Conquest was the last successful foreign invasion of England.
2. It brought significant changes to the government and social structures in England.
3. Norman French became the language of the ruling class and greatly influenced the development of the English language.

4. Conquest of Wales and Scotland:

1. The Normans initially conquered Wales, but the Welsh gradually regained territory.
2. The Scots and Normans fought along the border between England and Scotland.
3. The Normans took some land on the border but did not invade Scotland.

5. Domesday Book:

1. William ordered the creation of a comprehensive survey of England called the Domesday Book.
2. The book listed towns, villages, land ownership, and livestock to assess the wealth and resources of the kingdom.
3. The Domesday Book still exists today and provides an invaluable historical record of English society post-conquest.